Music Terminology
A reference to musical performance directions and instrumental techniques — across Italian, German, French and seven other score languages.
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Dynamic markings piano, forte, crescendo, diminuendo… Tempo markings largo, adagio, allegro, accelerando… Articulation staccato, legato, marcato, tenuto… Bowing terms pizzicato, sul ponticello, col legno… Notation terms clefs, score symbols, instructions… Abbreviations mf, sfz, rit., l.v., sul pont.… Music symbols the signs themselves: fermata, slur, sharp, repeat… All score markings the full overview of every family…
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All 426 performance directions in the reference. Open a group to see every term and link straight to its page.
Dynamics 14
- crescendo Crescendo (cresc.) directs a gradual increase in loudness or dynamic intensity; it may be written as text or shown by a separate opening hairpin.
- decrescendo Decrescendo (decresc.) directs a gradual decrease in loudness; in modern notation it usually overlaps functionally with diminuendo without erasing the two distinct words.
- diminuendo Diminuendo (dim.) means gradually diminishing in loudness—the dynamic opposite of crescendo and a close modern counterpart of decrescendo.
- forte Forte, written f, means loud or strong: a relative dynamic level, not a fixed decibel value.
- fortissimo Fortissimo, written ff, means very loud—a relative level above forte rather than a measured volume.
- fortississimo Fortississimo, written fff, marks an extreme loud level above fortissimo within the score’s relative dynamic range.
- mezzo forte Mezzo forte, written mf, means moderately loud—literally “half strong,” but not a mathematical half-volume.
- mezzo piano Mezzo piano, written mp, means moderately soft—literally “half soft,” but not a mathematical half-volume.
- morendo Morendo means 'dying': the music fades in dynamics and often also in tempo, as if expiring. The short form mor. is attested but not universal.
- perdendosi Perdendosi means “losing itself” or fading away: the sound and energy gradually recede, with a slight slowing possible but not automatic.
- pianissimo Pianissimo, written pp, means very soft—a relative level below piano rather than a fixed loudness.
- pianississimo Pianississimo, written ppp, marks an extremely soft dynamic below pianissimo in the score’s relative hierarchy.
- piano Piano, written p, means soft: a relative dynamic level below mezzo piano and above pianissimo in the familiar hierarchy.
- smorzando Smorzando (smorz.) means extinguishing or fading away: reduce the sound toward disappearance; a slowing may accompany it but is not automatic.
Tempo 48
- adagio Adagio is a slow, very calm and unhurried tempo whose literal “at ease” origin also carries expressive character; it is relative to metre, period and context, not one universal BPM.
- adagissimo Adagissimo is the superlative of Adagio: extremely or “very, very” slow, more intensified than ordinary Adagio without supplying a universal BPM.
- allegretto Allegretto is the diminutive of Allegro: lively and moderately quick, normally lighter, gentler and less driven than full Allegro.
- allegro Allegro is a fast, lively tempo whose older Italian sense of cheerfulness and animation still shapes the character; it is not merely a BPM label.
- allmählich langsamer Allmählich langsamer is German for “gradually slower”: reduce the prevailing tempo by degrees, in the functional territory of ritardando or rallentando.
- allmählich schneller Allmählich schneller is German for “gradually faster”: increase the prevailing tempo by degrees, in the functional territory of accelerando.
- andante Andante means “going” or “walking”: a moderate, flowing and unhurried tempo with steady forward motion rather than a fixed walking-speed BPM.
- andantino Andantino is a diminutive of Andante whose direction is historically ambiguous: depending on source, composer and period it can mean slightly slower or slightly faster than Andante.
- bewegt Bewegt is German for 'moving', 'agitated' or 'animated': a relative tempo-and-character marking favoured by Brahms and Mahler, normally written in full rather than assigned a fixed BPM.
- bewegt, doch nicht schnell Bewegt, doch nicht schnell means “moving, but not fast”: keep the music animated while respecting an explicit upper limit on speed.
- calando Calando means “falling away”: diminish the sound and, in many traditions, let the tempo subside as well; the score decides whether both parameters are intended.
- con moto Con moto means “with motion”: give the prevailing tempo a more animated, forward-moving character without assuming a fixed speed or a gradual tempo change.
- etwas bewegter Etwas bewegter means “somewhat more moving” or “a little more animated”: a modest relative lift, often but not mechanically a little faster.
- fließend Fließend means flowing: keep the musical line and pulse moving continuously and without stiffness, at the tempo the context requires.
- fließend aber nicht zu schnell Fließend, aber nicht zu schnell means “flowing, but not too fast”: keep the motion fluid while respecting a real limit on speed.
- getragen Getragen means sustained, borne and measured: carry the line with calm seriousness and dignity rather than merely making it slow.
- immer langsamer Immer langsamer means “slower and slower”: continue a cumulative deceleration across the marked span rather than settling immediately at a slower tempo.
- langsam Langsam is German for “slow,” a native-language tempo word broadly comparable with lento or adagio but not tied to a fixed BPM.
- langsam, feierlich Langsam, feierlich means “slow, solemn”: combine a slow tempo with dignified, grave and potentially ceremonial character, without treating either word as a fixed BPM.
- largamente Largamente means “broadly”: shape the music with breadth, space and dignified weight, often slowish but not reducible to Largo or a fixed BPM.
- larghetto Larghetto is the diminutive of Largo: broad and slow, but normally a little lighter and more flowing than its parent term.
- largo Largo asks for a very slow, broad and spacious manner—among the weightiest standard slow indications, but not one fixed BPM.
- lento Lento means “slow”: a broad tempo instruction with less built-in imagery than Largo or Adagio and no universal place on a numerical ladder.
- moderato Moderato means moderate or restrained and can stand alone or qualify another tempo word.
- mosso Mosso means “moved” or “animated”; it is especially common in più mosso (“more motion”) and meno mosso (“less motion”).
- nicht eilen Nicht eilen means “do not rush”: prevent the established tempo or phrase from pressing ahead unintentionally.
- nicht schleppen Nicht schleppen means “do not drag”: keep the established pulse and phrase from sagging, arriving late or becoming inert.
- nicht schleppend Nicht schleppend means “not dragging”: keep steady inner motion and prevent the pulse from sagging, even when the stated tempo is slow.
- nicht schnell Nicht schnell means “not fast”: exclude a fast pace without automatically turning the music into a conventionally slow tempo.
- nicht zu schnell Nicht zu schnell means “not too fast”: set an upper limit on the prevailing motion without necessarily taking away its quick or lively character.
- ohne zu eilen Ohne zu eilen means “without hurrying”: maintain the stated forward motion while preventing haste or unintended acceleration.
- ohne zu schleppen Ohne zu schleppen means “without dragging”: preserve the stated measured, broad or slow character while keeping the pulse alive.
- prestissimo Prestissimo is the Italian superlative of Presto: faster than Presto and at the extreme fast end of the conventional tempo vocabulary.
- presto Presto is a very fast tempo indication—among the quickest standard markings and more directly about speed than a fixed mood.
- ruhig Ruhig means “calm, quiet or peaceful”: establish an unhurried, even manner without assuming a fixed slow tempo.
- sans presser Sans presser means “without pressing ahead”: keep the prevailing motion from becoming hurried or unintentionally faster.
- sans rigueur Sans rigueur means “without strictness”; in a rhythmic context it permits flexible, non-rigid timing rather than commanding one specific tempo change.
- sans traîner Sans traîner means “without dragging”: keep the established pulse from sagging while preserving whatever broad, calm or moderate character the score specifies.
- schleppend Schleppend means “dragging”: let the motion feel deliberately heavy, laborious and drawn out rather than merely slow.
- schnell Schnell is German for “fast”: a native-language tempo direction broadly comparable with allegro or presto but not tied to a fixed BPM.
- sehr feierlich und sehr langsam Sehr feierlich und sehr langsam means “very solemn and very slow”: an emphatic compound marking with separately intensified character and tempo.
- sehr langsam Sehr langsam means “very slow”: take a tempo distinctly slower than plain langsam, with the exact degree set by context.
- sehr schnell Sehr schnell means “very fast”: schnell (“fast”) intensified by sehr (“very”), without a fixed BPM.
- senza tempo Senza tempo means “without fixed tempo”: play with rhythmic freedom rather than maintaining one strict pulse.
- sostenuto Sostenuto asks for sustained, weighty continuity and can imply a held-back tempo; it is distinct from the piano’s sostenuto pedal.
- vivace Vivace asks for brisk, lively and animated motion—often faster than Allegro, but defined by vitality as much as velocity.
- wieder bewegter Wieder bewegter means “more animated again”: renew motion after a calmer or less active passage without assuming a fixed destination tempo.
- zögernd Zögernd means “hesitating” or “holding back”: give the phrase a controlled sense of reluctance without assuming a fixed slower tempo.
Tempo changes 27
- a tempo A tempo returns to the pulse in force before the most recent local deviation; a t. is an attested short form.
- accelerando Accelerando means gradually getting faster; accel. is its standard abbreviation.
- affrettando Affrettando means hurrying or hastening: become faster with an urgent, potentially anxious character; affrett. is an attested abbreviation.
- allargando Allargando means gradually broadening and slowing, often toward a weightier or more stately arrival; allarg. is its standard abbreviation.
- cédez Cédez means “yield” or “give way”: let the tempo or forward pressure relax slightly and locally.
- cédez légèrement Cédez légèrement means “yield slightly”: let tempo or forward pressure give way gently and only a little.
- cédez très peu Cédez très peu means “yield very little”: make only a minimal relaxation of tempo or forward pressure.
- drängend Drängend is German for “pressing” or “urging onward”: a hallmark Mahler direction for expressive forward pressure, not automatically a literal accelerando.
- en élargissant En élargissant is French for “broadening”: the counterpart of allargando, asking the motion to become progressively broader and usually slower.
- incalzando Incalzando means pressing or pursuing onward: hasten with growing drive; incalz. is an attested abbreviation.
- l’istesso tempo L’istesso tempo means “the same tempo”: preserve the intended pulse relationship when metre, subdivision or prevailing note value changes.
- meno mosso Meno mosso means “less motion”: establish a slower, broader local tempo relative to what immediately precedes.
- più mosso Più mosso means “more motion”: establish a faster, more animated local tempo relative to what immediately precedes.
- rallentando Rallentando (rall.) directs a gradual slowing of the tempo and is commonly treated as a synonym of ritardando.
- retenu Retenu means “held back”: adopt a restrained tempo, gesture or forward motion at the marking.
- ritardando Ritardando (rit.; also ritard.) directs a gradual slowing of the tempo. The longer abbreviation avoids the ambiguity of rit., which can also stand for ritenuto.
- ritenuto Ritenuto (most clearly riten.; also the ambiguous rit.) means 'held back': a slower tempo taken more immediately or held more uniformly than a gradual deceleration.
- rubato Rubato, or “stolen time,” is expressive flexibility of rhythm and tempo: a melody may move freely against a steadier accompaniment, or the whole texture may flex together.
- sans ralentir Sans ralentir means “without slowing”: keep the established tempo and forward motion steady.
- senza rallentare Senza rallentare means “without slowing”: maintain the established tempo and forward motion.
- slargando Slargando means gradually broadening and slowing; it is a less common close counterpart of allargando.
- stringendo Stringendo means pressing or tightening forward: become gradually faster with increasing urgency; string. is its standard abbreviation.
- subito Subito means “suddenly”: it makes the attached dynamic, tempo or character change immediate rather than gradual; sub. is the standard abbreviation.
- tempo primo Tempo primo means return immediately to the movement’s first, original tempo; Tempo I is its conventional Roman-numeral score form.
- trattenuto Trattenuto means held back or restrained, usually with a sustained quality; tratt. is the standard abbreviation.
- un peu retenu Un peu retenu means “slightly held back”: apply a small restraint to tempo or forward energy.
- zurückhaltend Zurückhaltend means “restrained” or “held back” in tempo, gesture or expression.
Articulation 44
- accentato accented, marked or emphasised; write accentato in full
- bien marqué clearly or well marked; write bien marqué in full
- bisbigliando Bisbigliando is a whispering tremolo or colour trill, especially for harp; bisb. and bisbigl. are attested forms.
- Bisbigliando Bisbigliando is a whispering harp tremolo or colour trill, with the attested forms bisb. and bisbigl.
- breit gezogen broadly drawn out or broadly bowed; write breit gezogen in full
- détaché separate-bow string playing, normally with one bow stroke per note; write détaché in full
- forte-piano loud, then immediately soft; the standard compound dynamic form is fp
- gebunden bound and connected—the German equivalent of legato; write gebunden in full
- gebunden a bound, connected legato articulation; write gebunden in full
- gestoßen detached or staccato-style playing; write gestoßen in full
- gestoßen a detached German articulation corresponding to staccato; write gestoßen in full
- gezogen drawn out, carried or sustained; write gezogen in full
- hart hard, firm or strong in character; write hart in full
- kurz short or brief in sounding duration; write kurz in full
- lang long or sustained; write lang in full
- legatissimo very or maximally connected legato; the attested text abbreviation is legatiss.
- legato Legato directs smoothly connected notes without audible gaps; leg. is an attested abbreviation.
- léger light or slight in character, touch or motion; write léger in full
- leicht light or lightly in character, motion or touch; write leicht in full
- lié connected or legato in manner; write lié in full
- marcato marked, stressed or strongly accented; the attested text abbreviation is marc.
- markiert marked, emphasised or accented in context; write markiert in full
- marqué marked, accented or clearly emphasised in context; write marqué in full
- martellato hammered or strongly accented; mart. is attested in instrument-specific contexts
- non legato not legato, with audible separation but context-dependent length; the attested form is non leg.
- portamento a controlled expressive glide between pitches; port. is attested where slide context is clear
- portatissimo a strongly intensified portato or carried articulation, interpreted contextually; write portatissimo in full
- portato Portato means 'carried': a gently separated but still connected articulation between legato and staccato; port. is safe only when the articulation context rules out portamento.
- rinforzando Rinforzando means 'reinforcing': a sudden local increase of force on a note, chord or short span; standard forms are rf, rfz and rinf.
- rullo Rullo is the Italian word for a percussion roll: rapid repeated strokes that create a sustained or continuously active effect; write the word in full.
- scharf sharp, biting or cutting in character; write scharf in full
- sec dry, direct and restrained in resonance; write sec in full
- sempre legato Sempre legato means always legato throughout the marked span; sempre leg. is an attested compact form.
- sempre staccato Sempre staccato means always staccato throughout the marked span; sempre stacc. is the attested compact form.
- sforzando Sforzando is a sudden forceful accent on a marked note, chord or local group; sf and sfz are standard forms shared historically with sforzato.
- sforzato Sforzato means forced or strongly accented on the marked event; sf and sfz are standard forms also shared with sforzando.
- staccatissimo Staccatissimo asks for an extremely detached, sharply shortened articulation; staccatiss. is the attested text abbreviation.
- staccato Staccato directs the performer to shorten and separate notes from what follows; stacc. is the standard text abbreviation.
- tenuto Tenuto means 'held': sustain the marked note fully and often give it contextual weight; ten. is the standard text abbreviation.
- tremolo rapid measured or unmeasured reiteration of one note, alternation between pitches, or an instrument-appropriate roll; the attested text abbreviation is trem.
- Tremolo rapid reiteration of one note or alternation between notes; the attested text abbreviation is trem.
- trocken dry, plain or restrained in character; write trocken in full
- trocken dry, with reduced resonance and a contained release; write trocken in full
- weich soft, tender or gently rounded in manner; write weich in full
Character & expression 86
- à peine barely audible / scarcely
- agitato Agitato is an Italian character marking meaning agitated, restless, or excited.
- animato Animato means 'animated, lively', asking for spirited, quickened playing.
- appassionato Appassionato is an Italian character marking meaning passionate, with intense feeling.
- ausdrucksvoll Ausdrucksvoll is the German term for 'expressive' — play full of expression, the equivalent of espressivo.
- äußerst zart Äußerst zart means 'extremely tender / extremely delicate' — the most fragile degree of zart.
- äußerst zart Äußerst zart means 'extremely tender / extremely delicate' — zart taken to its most fragile extreme.
- avec douceur Avec douceur means 'with softness / with sweetness' — play gently and tenderly.
- brillante Brillante means 'brilliant', asking for sparkling, showy, spirited playing.
- calme Calme is the French direction for a calm, quiet, peaceful manner.
- cantabile Cantabile directs the player to perform in a singing style — flowing, vocal, with a measured tempo and flexible legato.
- come un’eco Come un'eco means 'like an echo': repeat or shadow a phrase more softly, as a returning reflection of what just sounded.
- con brio Con brio means 'with spirit or vigour', asking for lively, spirited playing.
- con dolore Con dolore is an Italian character marking meaning 'with grief, with pain'.
- con fuoco Con fuoco means 'with fire', calling for fiery, passionate playing.
- cupo Cupo asks for a dark, gloomy, sombre tone — heavy and inward in colour.
- da lontano Da lontano means 'from afar': the passage should sound as if coming from a distance.
- deciso Deciso means 'decisive, firm', asking for resolute, clearly defined playing.
- délicat Délicat means 'delicate, elegant, dainty' — play with fine, poised restraint.
- derb derb is a German marking meaning coarse, rough and earthy — play rustically, without polish.
- dolce Dolce means 'sweetly' — an instruction to play with a soft, tender, singing quality rather than at a fixed tempo or dynamic.
- doloroso Doloroso is an Italian character marking meaning 'sorrowful, painful'.
- doucement gently / softly
- doux Doux is the French direction for 'soft, sweet, gentle' — both a quality of tone and, historically, an indication of softness.
- energico Energico directs the performer to play energetically, with strength and drive.
- ernst Ernst is the German direction for a serious, earnest, grave manner.
- eroico Eroico means 'heroic' — a direction to play in a bold, heroic, grandly affirmative manner.
- espressivo Espressivo simply means 'expressive' — play with heightened feeling and shaping rather than neutrally.
- estatico Estatico is an Italian character marking meaning ecstatic, rapturous, or transported.
- expressif Expressif is the French equivalent of espressivo — 'expressive', play with feeling and shaping.
- feierlich Feierlich is German for 'solemn, ceremonial' — a direction to play with grave, dignified solemnity.
- feroce Feroce means 'ferocious', asking for savage, fierce, aggressive playing.
- furioso Furioso means 'furious', asking for wild, violently agitated playing.
- gesangvoll Gesangvoll means 'songful' or 'in a singing style' — the German counterpart of cantabile.
- giocoso Giocoso is an Italian character marking meaning playful, merry, or sportive.
- grazioso Grazioso is an Italian character marking meaning graceful or elegant.
- heftig, aber markig vehement but firm
- impetuoso Impetuoso means 'impetuous', asking for impulsive, headlong, vehement playing.
- innig Innig means 'heartfelt, intimate' — a directive to play with inward, deeply felt warmth.
- kaum hörbar barely audible
- klagend Klagend is a German character marking meaning 'lamenting, plaintive'.
- lamentoso Lamentoso is an Italian character marking meaning 'lamenting, mournfully'.
- leggero Leggiero (modern leggero) means 'light, lightly': play with delicate, nimble, low-weight touch.
- leidenschaftlich Leidenschaftlich is a German character marking meaning passionately, with intense feeling.
- lointain Lointain directs the player to sound distant or far-off, soft and veiled as though heard from a distance.
- lontano Lontano means 'distant, far away': play softly and veiled, as though the sound comes from a distance.
- luminoso Luminoso is an Italian character marking meaning luminous, bright, or radiant.
- maestoso Maestoso means 'majestic, stately' — a direction to play with broad, dignified grandeur.
- majestoso Majestoso is a variant spelling of maestoso, meaning 'majestic, stately'.
- malinconico Malinconico is an expressive Italian character marking meaning 'melancholic'.
- markig markig is a German marking meaning vigorous, pithy and full-blooded — play strong and bold.
- mesto Mesto is an Italian character marking meaning 'mournful, sad'.
- minaccioso Minaccioso asks for a menacing, threatening character — tense and ominous.
- misterioso Misterioso is the Italian character marking for 'mysterious', also used unchanged in German-language scores.
- misterioso Misterioso directs the music to be played mysteriously — hushed, veiled, and full of suspense.
- mit Ausdruck Mit Ausdruck means 'with expression' — the German direction to play expressively, like espressivo.
- nobile Nobile means 'noble' — a direction to play in a noble, dignified fashion.
- oscuro Oscuro calls for an obscure, dark, gloomy quality — a shadowed, dimmed sound.
- parlando speech-like / as if speaking
- pesante Pesante calls for a heavy, weighty, ponderous manner of performance.
- quasi recitativo almost like recitative
- rauh rauh (rau) is a German marking meaning rough, harsh and coarse in tone.
- religioso Religioso means 'religious' — a direction to play in a devotional, sacred manner.
- sans dureté Sans dureté means 'without hardness' — a directive to avoid any harshness of attack or tone.
- scherzando Scherzando is an Italian character marking meaning playfully or jokingly.
- schwer Schwer is the German direction for a heavy, weighty — and at times grave or laborious — manner.
- schwungvoll with sweep, verve
- sehr feierlich Sehr feierlich means 'very solemn' — an intensified form of feierlich.
- sehr gesangvoll Sehr gesangvoll means 'very songful' — the intensified form of gesangvoll.
- semplice Semplice is an Italian character marking meaning simple, plain, or unaffected.
- severo Severo asks for a severe, strict, austere manner of performance.
- solenne Solenne means 'solemn' — a direction to play with solemn, grave dignity.
- sospeso suspended / hovering
- sotto voce Sotto voce ('under the voice') means to play or sing in a hushed, subdued undertone.
- tendre Tendre is the French direction for 'tender, loving' — play with affectionate tenderness.
- teneramente Teneramente means 'tenderly, softly' — play with gentle, affectionate tenderness.
- tranquillo Tranquillo asks for a calm, peaceful, tranquil manner of performance.
- très calme Très calme means 'very calm,' an intensified call for stillness and quiet.
- très doux Très doux means 'very soft / very sweet' — an intensified form of doux.
- très expressif Très expressif means 'very expressive' — the intensified form of expressif.
- très léger very light
- voix lointaine Voix lointaine means 'distant voice': play as a soft, far-off, voice-like line heard from a distance.
- wie aus der Ferne Wie aus der Ferne means 'as if from afar': play so the music seems to come from a distance.
- wild wild is a German character marking calling for wild, fierce, furious playing.
- wuchtig wuchtig is a German marking meaning weighty, heavy and massive — play with ponderous force.
- zart Zart means 'tender, delicate' — play gently and delicately, with a soft touch.
Bowing (strings) 49
- arco Arco is the complete score word for returning a bowed string instrument to bowing after pizzicato.
- armonici Armonici is the plural of armonico: play the marked notes, chord or passage as harmonics.
- armonico Armonico means harmonic: sound the marked note as a natural or artificial string harmonic rather than an ordinary stopped tone.
- armonico artificiale Armonico artificiale means artificial harmonic: stop the string firmly and touch a higher node lightly, normally a perfect fourth above.
- armonico naturale Armonico naturale means natural harmonic: lightly touch a node on an open string so a higher partial predominates.
- auf einen Bogen Auf einen Bogen means in one bow: play the indicated notes within a single continuous up-bow or down-bow.
- avec l’archet Avec l’archet means with the bow: resume or require bowed playing.
- balzato Balzato indicates a bouncing or springing bow stroke, generally with a separate bow direction for successive notes.
- col legno Col legno means using the wood of the bow rather than ordinary hair-only contact; c.l. is an attested short form.
- col legno battuto Col legno battuto means striking the string with the wood of the bow; c.l.b. is a well-attested short form.
- col legno tratto Col legno tratto means drawing the wood of the bow across the string; c.l.t. is a well-attested short form.
- con vibrato Con vibrato directs the player to add or restore vibrato; c.v. is an attested short form.
- corde vuote Corde vuote means open strings: sound the string unstopped so its full speaking length vibrates from nut to bridge.
- divisi Divisi (div.) tells one instrumental section, most often strings, to split a simultaneous line into two or more separate parts.
- doppie corde The locked Italian headword doppie corde denotes double stops: two pitches sounded together on adjacent strings.
- flautando Flautando (also flautato; attested score form flaut.) asks bowed strings for a light, flute-like colour, commonly with a fast, low-pressure bow near or over the fingerboard.
- gestrichen Gestrichen means bowed: produce the sound with the bow rather than by plucking the string.
- gettato Gettato means a thrown bow: one impulse produces a short series of rebounding, separated notes.
- geworfen Geworfen means thrown: launch the bow into a controlled rebound, often for a jeté- or ricochet-type group.
- gezupft Gezupft means plucked or pizzicato: set the string in motion with a finger instead of the bow.
- harmonique Harmonique means harmonic in French: produce the marked note or passage as a harmonic rather than an ordinary fully stopped tone.
- hinter dem Steg Hinter dem Steg means behind the bridge: play on the short afterlength of string between the bridge and tailpiece.
- mehrere Saiten Mehrere Saiten means several strings: apply the notated action across or on more than one string.
- mit dem Bogen Mit dem Bogen means with the bow: use bowed sound, often as a return after pizzicato or another non-bowed technique.
- mit der Bogenstange Mit der Bogenstange means with the bow stick: use the wooden stick rather than ordinary bow hair.
- mit Holz Mit Holz means with the wood: in a string part, use the wooden bow stick rather than the hair.
- mit starkem Bogendruck Mit starkem Bogendruck means with strong bow pressure: increase the bow’s force against the string.
- modo ordinario Modo ordinario means return to the ordinary way of playing; ord. is the conventional short form.
- molto vibrato Molto vibrato asks for conspicuously more vibrato than the local norm; the score may define greater width, faster rate, stronger continuity, or a combination.
- naturale Naturale means natural or normal: restore the locally altered playing parameter to its ordinary state.
- non divisi Non divisi means not divided: where a chord could be shared across a string section, every player is to perform the written multiple stop instead.
- ohne Bogendruck Ohne Bogendruck means without bow pressure: use minimal normal force, or the score’s explicitly defined pressureless bow effect.
- ordinario Ordinario means ordinary or normal playing; ord. is the standard short form.
- pincé Pincé means plucked in this bowed-string context: use a finger rather than the bow.
- pizzicato Pizzicato (pizz.) means that a bowed string is plucked with a finger instead of sounded with the bow.
- ricochet Ricochet is a thrown-bow stroke in which one impulse produces several rapid rebounds, usually within one bow direction.
- saltando Saltando indicates a jumping, springing or bouncing bow articulation; salt. is an attested score form.
- scordatura Scordatura is a deliberate non-standard tuning of a string instrument, chosen to change available chords and fingerings, resonance, range or timbre.
- senza vibrato Senza vibrato asks for a straight, unwavering tone without deliberate pitch oscillation; common score forms include senza vib. and s.v.
- soli Soli is the complete plural of solo, assigning a passage to multiple designated players rather than one performer or the full section.
- solo Solo is the complete score word for 'alone': a passage assigned to one instrument or voice.
- springend Springend means springing or bouncing: let the bow rebound from the string.
- Strich für Strich Strich für Strich means bow stroke by bow stroke: give each indicated note or figure a separate stroke.
- sul A Sul A directs the player to perform the marked passage on the A string.
- sul D Sul D directs the player to perform the marked passage on the D string.
- sul E Sul E directs the player to perform the marked passage on the E string—normally the violin’s top string or the standard double bass’s lowest string.
- sul G Sul G directs the player to perform the marked passage on the G string.
- tutti Tutti is the complete Italian score word for 'all': the whole section or ensemble plays together.
- unisono Unisono (unis.) means that several players sound the same line together, at the same written pitch or in octaves.
Bow placement (strings) 15
- a.s.p ASP, also written a.s.p., is specialist score shorthand for alto sul ponticello.
- al tallone at the frog of the bow
- alto sul ponticello Alto sul ponticello is a strong, extreme bridge position, commonly shortened in score legends to a.s.p. or ASP.
- am Frosch at the frog of the bow
- am Griffbrett at or over the fingerboard
- am Steg at or near the bridge
- an der Spitze at the tip of the bow
- dietro il ponticello behind the bridge
- molto sul ponticello very close to the bridge, often abbreviated m.s.p.
- nahe am Steg near the bridge
- punta d’arco Punta d'arco directs the string player to use the point or tip region of the bow.
- sul ponticello at or near the bridge, commonly abbreviated s.p. or sul pont.
- sul tasto Sul tasto means bowing over the fingerboard; s.t. is an established specialist score abbreviation.
- sur la touche at or over the fingerboard
- sur le chevalet at or near the bridge
Mutes 14
- avec sourdine with mute (French); write the phrase in full
- con sordino with mute on brass; standard abbreviation: con sord.
- con sordino with the string mute on; standard abbreviation: con sord.
- mit Cup-Dämpfer with the specified cup mute; write the German phrase in full
- mit Dämpfer with the string mute on (German); attested abbreviation: m. D.
- mit Harmon-Dämpfer with the specified Harmon mute; write the German phrase in full
- mit Straight-Dämpfer with the specified straight mute; write the German phrase in full
- mit Wah-Wah-Dämpfer with the specified wah-wah mute/effect; write the German phrase in full
- ohne Dämpfer without the string mute (German); attested abbreviation: o. D.
- sans sourdine without mute (French); write the phrase in full
- senza sordino without a brass mute; standard abbreviation: senza sord.
- senza sordino without the string mute; standard abbreviation: senza sord.
- sordino the brass mute itself; attested abbreviation: sord.
- sordino the string mute itself; attested abbreviation: sord.
Sound colour 9
- avec vibrato Avec vibrato means 'with vibrato': introduce audible vibrato as part of the sustained sound, with its rate, extent and timing shaped by context; write the French phrase in full.
- kratzend Kratzend means 'scratchy' or 'scraping': give the marked sound a deliberately abrasive, friction-rich character; write the German word in full.
- lumineux Lumineux means 'luminous', 'clear' or 'bright': give the marked music a radiant, light-filled character; write the French word in full.
- obscur Obscur means 'dark', 'dim' or 'obscure': give the marked music a shadowed, less brightly defined character; write the French word in full.
- sans vibrato Sans vibrato means 'without vibrato': use a deliberately straight tone with no intended vibrato, while sustaining pitch and tone according to context; write the French phrase in full.
- sombre Sombre means 'dark', 'gloomy' or 'veiled': give the marked music a shadowed, serious character; write the French word in full.
- sonore Sonore means 'sonorous', 'resonant' or 'full-toned': let the sound carry with a clear, resonant core; write the French word in full.
- très vibré Très vibré is a French direction for very pronounced vibrato: intensify the audible vibrato beyond the local norm while letting the instrument and score determine its exact profile; write the complete phrase in full.
- voilé Voilé means 'veiled': give the marked sound a covered, subdued or less direct quality without assuming one physical cause; write the French adjective in full.
Resonance & pedalling 11
- abdämpfen Abdämpfen ('to damp' or 'muffle') directs the player to stop or shorten an already sounding resonance rather than let it ring; the German instruction should be written in full.
- étouffez Étouffez ('damp' or 'muffle') is a French imperative to stop or shorten the indicated resonance after it sounds; write the command in full.
- frei schwingen lassen Frei schwingen lassen ('let vibrate freely') directs an indicated string, bar, plate or other resonant body to remain undamped after the attack; write the phrase in full.
- gedämpft Gedämpft (ged.) means damped, muted or muffled; the required action is instrument-specific.
- klingen lassen Klingen lassen ('let ring') directs an already produced sound to continue without deliberate damping to the locally intended cutoff or its natural decay; write the German phrase in full.
- laissez vibrer Laissez vibrer (l.v., 'let vibrate') directs an indicated sound to continue without deliberate damping until a local cutoff or its natural decay.
- lasciar vibrare Lasciar vibrare (l.v., 'let vibrate') is the Italian instruction to let an indicated sound ring without deliberate damping until a local cutoff or its natural decay.
- Saiten abdämpfen Saiten abdämpfen ('damp the strings') directs the player to stop or shorten the indicated strings' resonance by instrument-appropriate contact; write the phrase in full.
- smorzare Smorzare ('to damp', 'deaden' or 'extinguish') directs the player to reduce or stop an indicated resonance by the appropriate physical action; write the infinitive in full.
- sons étouffés Sons étouffés ('muffled' or 'damped tones') describes a continuing or repeated sound quality, not a one-time imperative to cut off an existing resonance; write the phrase in full.
- subito smorzato Subito smorzato means 'immediately subdued or dying away': enter the smorzato state at once rather than beginning the change later; write the complete phrase in full.
Voicing & balance 10
- breit Breit means 'broadly': give the marked passage breadth in line, tempo-feel or sound as the local score requires; write the German word in full.
- en dehors En dehors means brought out or prominent: a voice, melody or figure should stand forward from the texture.
- etwas hervortretend Etwas hervortretend means 'slightly prominent': let the indicated voice come a little farther forward in the balance, and write the complete phrase in full.
- hervorheben Hervorheben means 'bring out' or 'emphasize': make the indicated note, voice or figure clearer in the texture; write the verb in full.
- hervortretend Hervortretend means 'emerging' or 'brought forward': let the indicated voice or figure stand out in the texture; the attested abbreviation is hervortr.
- le chant bien soutenu Le chant bien soutenu means 'the melody well sustained': carry the melodic line with support, connection and direction, and write the complete French phrase in full.
- le chant en dehors Le chant en dehors means 'the melody brought forward': let the melodic line sing clearly through the texture, and write the complete French phrase in full.
- stark hervortretend Stark hervortretend means 'strongly prominent': let the indicated voice or figure stand out markedly in the balance, and write the complete phrase in full.
- très en dehors Très en dehors means 'very prominent': bring the indicated voice or figure clearly to the foreground, and write the complete phrase in full.
- un peu en dehors Un peu en dehors means 'slightly prominent': lift the indicated voice a little out of the texture, and write the complete phrase in full.
Wind techniques 28
- aperto Aperto means open; in a stopped-horn context it calls for open rather than stopped playing, while other instruments and genres use different senses. Write the word in full.
- bouché Bouché is French for stopped in horn notation: use the locally specified stopped or closed-bell practice for the marked passage; write the word in full.
- campana a terra Campana a terra literally means bell to or on the ground. In a wind or brass part it most plausibly directs the bell downward; a percussion-bell reading requires confirmation from the score. Write the phrase in full.
- campana in aria Campana in aria is the Italian bells-up direction: raise the brass-instrument bell into the air relative to its normal position; write the phrase in full.
- campana verso il pubblico Campana verso il pubblico directs the player to aim the bell toward the audience for more direct spatial projection; write the phrase in full.
- chiuso Chiuso means closed; in horn notation it commonly calls for a stopped or locally defined closed-bell state. Write the word in full.
- con lingua Con lingua means with the tongue: use tonguing for the marked wind-instrument attacks; write the phrase in full.
- Doppelzunge Doppelzunge is German for double tonguing: alternating two tongue actions to articulate a rapid succession of separate wind-instrument notes; write the German headword in full.
- doppio staccato Doppio staccato means double tonguing or double staccato: alternate two tongue actions for rapid separate wind-instrument notes; write the phrase in full.
- Dreifachzunge Dreifachzunge is German for triple tonguing: a repeating three-attack multiple-tonguing pattern for rapid articulated notes; write the German headword in full.
- Flatterzunge Flatterzunge is German for flutter tonguing: a continuous rolled-tongue or uvular flutter that rapidly modulates a wind sound; the attested abbreviations are Flz. and Flt.
- flüsternd Flüsternd means whispering: give the marked sound a whisper-like character while retaining whatever pitch, rhythm and dynamic the local score specifies; write it in full.
- frullato Frullato is Italian for flutter-tonguing: sustain a wind tone while a rapid tongue-tip or uvular flutter repeatedly interrupts the air stream. The standard short form is frull.
- hauchend Hauchend means breathy or breathed: let audible air colour the marked sound without assuming that pitch disappears; write the German word in full.
- Luftgeräusch Luftgeräusch means air noise: foreground audible moving air in or across a wind instrument, with any pitch component determined by the local notation; write it in full.
- Mehrklang Mehrklang means a multiple sound or, in this wind-technique context, a multiphonic with more than one simultaneous pitch component; write the German headword in full.
- mit viel Luft Mit viel Luft means with much air: make a large audible breath or air component part of the wind sound while retaining any pitched element required by the score; write the phrase in full.
- multifonico Multifonico means a multiphonic sound: several apparent pitches or fundamentals produced at once, especially on a wind instrument.
- nur Luft Nur Luft means air only: foreground breath or air noise and suppress the normal sustained pitched tone for the marked passage; write the phrase in full.
- ohne Ton Ohne Ton means without tone: withhold the normal formed instrumental tone or clear pitch while performing the marked action; write the German phrase in full.
- pavillon en l’air Pavillon en l’air directs a player to raise the instrument’s bell into the air relative to its ordinary or preceding position; write the precise French phrase in full.
- senza lingua Senza lingua means without the tongue: make the marked wind attacks without tonguing; write the phrase in full.
- senza suono Senza suono means without sound or without a formed tone; in wind context, suppress the ordinary clear pitch while realizing the marked gesture. Write the phrase in full.
- solo aria Solo aria means air only: foreground breath noise and suppress the normal sustained instrumental tone; write the phrase in full.
- suoni chiusi Suoni chiusi means closed or stopped tones, especially in horn writing; use the locally defined closed-bell state and write the phrase in full.
- suono d’aria Suono d’aria means air sound: make audible breath noise the main colour, with little or no stable pitch according to the score; write the phrase in full.
- triplo staccato Triplo staccato means triple tonguing or triple staccato: organize alternating wind articulations in repeating groups of three; write the phrase in full.
- überblasen Überblasen means to overblow: excite a higher resonance or partial of a wind instrument rather than its ordinary lower response; write the German word in full.
Brass techniques 10
- gestopft Gestopft means fully stopped, chiefly for horn: seal the bell with the right hand or use a locally authorized stopping solution; the attested text abbreviation is gest.
- halb gestopft Halb gestopft means half-stopped horn: partly close the bell to obtain a local intermediate state between ordinary open playing and full stopping; write the complete phrase in full.
- mit der Hand gedämpft Mit der Hand gedämpft means muted or modified with the hand: use an instrument-appropriate hand treatment for the marked sound; write the complete phrase in full.
- offen Offen means open: restore the locally relevant brass state, commonly ending a stopped or covered horn passage; write the word in full.
- pavillon baissé Pavillon baissé directs the player to lower the instrument’s bell relative to its previous or locally understood position; write the exact French phrase in full.
- Schallstück aufwärts Schallstück aufwärts directs a brass player to raise or orient the bell upward, changing the orientation of the instrument’s projection; write the exact German phrase in full.
- Schallstück gegen den Boden Schallstück gegen den Boden directs a brass player to aim the bell toward the floor, changing the orientation of the instrument’s projection; write the exact German phrase in full.
- Schallstück in die Höhe Schallstück in die Höhe directs a brass player to raise the bell into the air, changing the orientation of the instrument’s projection; write the exact German phrase in full.
- Schallstück ins Publikum Schallstück ins Publikum directs a brass player to aim the bell toward the audience, changing the orientation of the instrument’s projection; write the exact German phrase in full.
- Schallstück nach oben Schallstück nach oben directs a brass player to orient the bell upward for the marked passage, changing the direction of projection; write the exact German phrase in full.
Harp techniques 18
- al centro Al centro means at the centre: play or strike the centre of the indicated sounding surface or playing area; write the phrase in full.
- arpeggiato Arpeggiato means arpeggiated: sound the notes of the chord in succession rather than exactly together; write the word in full.
- auf den Saiten Auf den Saiten means on the strings: perform the specified action directly on the instrument’s strings; write the phrase in full.
- bisbigliando Bisbigliando is a whispering harp colour trill, with the attested forms bisb. and bisbigl.
- con bacchette dure Con bacchette dure means with hard sticks or mallets: choose a hard implement appropriate to the named percussion instrument; write the complete phrase in full.
- con bacchette morbide Con bacchette morbide means with soft mallets: choose a soft-headed implement appropriate to the named percussion instrument; write the complete phrase in full.
- con pedale Con pedale means with pedal: use the piano’s sustain or damper pedal through the indicated passage; write the Italian phrase in full.
- Flageolett Flageolett is German for a harmonic: touch a string lightly at a node so a partial sounds instead of the normal fundamental; write the word in full.
- glissando Glissando, abbreviated gliss., directs an audible glide or sweep between pitches; the intervening sound is continuous on some instruments and stepped on others.
- mit den Fingernägeln Mit den Fingernägeln means with the fingernails: use nail rather than fingertip flesh for the specified contact; write the phrase in full.
- mit der Handfläche Mit der Handfläche means with the palm of the hand: use the broad palm surface for the specified action; write the phrase in full.
- nahe am Resonanzboden Nahe am Resonanzboden means near the soundboard: pluck the harp strings close to the board for a drier, more nasal colour; write the German phrase in full.
- Pedalglissando Pedalglissando is a harp pedal slide: pluck a string, then move its pitch-class pedal while it rings so the pitch changes by one or more semitone steps; write the term in full.
- secco Secco means dry: make the marked sound short, abrupt and without a ringing tail; write the word in full.
- senza pedale Senza pedale means without pedal: keep the piano’s sustain or damper pedal released through the indicated passage; write the Italian phrase in full.
- sul bordo Sul bordo means at the edge: play or strike near the edge of the indicated sounding surface or playing area; write the phrase in full.
- tre corde Tre corde (t.c.) tells the pianist to release the left soft/una corda pedal and return to the normal action position.
- una corda Una corda (u.c.) tells the pianist to depress the left soft pedal for a softer, altered tonal colour.
Piano techniques 10
- dentro il pianoforte Dentro il pianoforte means inside the piano: perform the separately specified action within the acoustic instrument; write the phrase in full.
- im Innern des Klaviers Im Innern des Klaviers means inside the piano: perform the separately specified action within the acoustic instrument; write the phrase in full.
- mit Pedal Mit Pedal, commonly shortened to mit Ped., means with the piano’s damper pedal: use sustain pedalling through the marked passage.
- ohne Pedal Ohne Pedal, commonly shortened to ohne Ped., means without the piano’s damper pedal: keep sustain pedalling disengaged for the marked passage.
- Pedal aufheben Pedal aufheben means release the piano’s damper pedal at the marked point, allowing the dampers to return; write the words in full when a verbal instruction is used.
- präpariertes Klavier Präpariertes Klavier means prepared piano: use an acoustic piano whose sound has been altered by the work’s precisely documented, approved setup; write the term in full.
- Präparierung Präparierung means preparation: the specified setup or act of modifying a piano for a work, with every material and placement documented; write the word in full.
- preparato Preparato means prepared: in a clear piano context, use the instrument in the exact altered state specified by the work; write the adjective in full.
- stumm niedergedrückt Stumm niedergedrückt means depressed silently: lower the notated piano keys without hammer attack so their dampers lift; write the phrase in full.
- tasti muti Tasti muti means silent keys: depress and hold the notated piano keys without hammer attack so their dampers lift; write the phrase in full.
Percussion techniques 14
- auf dem Rand Auf dem Rand means on the rim or edge: play at the outer boundary of the locally specified percussion instrument; write the phrase in full.
- Beckenkuppel Beckenkuppel names the raised central dome or bell of a cymbal as the playing point; write the complete German headword in full.
- hängendes Becken Hängendes Becken calls for a single suspended cymbal played with a stick, mallet or other specified implement rather than a pair clashed together; write the phrase in full.
- mit Besen Mit Besen means with brushes: replace ordinary sticks or mallets with percussion brushes for the marked notes or passage; write the phrase in full.
- mit Filzschlägeln Mit Filzschlägeln directs the player to use felt-headed mallets; because felt heads range from soft to hard, the phrase does not select one universal attack; write it in full.
- mit harten Schlägeln Mit harten Schlägeln means with hard mallets: choose an implement at the hard end of the appropriate instrument’s mallet range; write the phrase in full.
- mit Holzschlägeln Mit Holzschlägeln directs the player to use wooden mallets or beaters for the marked material; write the complete phrase in full.
- mit Kontrabassbogen streichen Mit Kontrabassbogen streichen means to bow the locally specified percussion instrument or object with a double-bass bow; write the phrase in full.
- mit Metallgegenstand Mit Metallgegenstand means with a metal object: use the locally specified metallic implement for the marked percussion action; write the phrase in full.
- mit Ruten Mit Ruten directs the player to use Ruten or rods: bundled thin-dowel beaters rather than ordinary single sticks; write the phrase in full.
- mit weichen Schlägeln Mit weichen Schlägeln means with soft mallets: choose a soft implement appropriate to the named percussion instrument and passage; write the phrase in full.
- piatto sospeso Piatto sospeso is the Italian term for a single suspended cymbal played with a stick, mallet or other specified implement rather than a clashed pair; write the phrase in full.
- Rimshot Rimshot calls for a snare-drum stroke in which one stick strikes the head and rim simultaneously, producing a sharp cracking composite attack; write the headword in full.
- Tamtam Tamtam names the large suspended, relatively flat orchestral gong of indefinite pitch; the attested German score abbreviation accepted here is Tamt.
Composition techniques 5
General techniques 4
- altissimo Altissimo means very high or highest and usually designates an instrument’s extreme upper register; write the Italian word in full.
- harmonique artificiel Harmonique artificiel is French for an artificial harmonic: stop the string firmly, then touch a higher node lightly; write the complete French phrase in full.
- harmonique naturel Harmonique naturel is French for a natural harmonic: touch a node of an open string lightly to favour one partial; write the complete French phrase in full.
- ordinaire Ordinaire means ordinary or normal: return to the locally conventional way of playing; write the French word in full.
Theory concepts 2
Other directions 8
- am Rand Am Rand means at the edge: move the contact or striking point toward the edge of the indicated sounding surface; write the phrase in full.
- con le unghie Con le unghie means with the fingernails: use nail contact instead of the ordinary fingertip; write the complete Italian phrase in full.
- con oggetto di legno Con oggetto di legno means with a wooden object: use a specifically suitable bare wooden implement for the notated action; write the complete Italian phrase in full.
- con oggetto metallico Con oggetto metallico means with a metal object: use a specifically suitable metal implement for the notated action; write the complete Italian phrase in full.
- Doppelgriff Doppelgriff, abbreviated Doppelgr., is a double stop: sound two strings together on one bowed string instrument.
- gewöhnlich Gewöhnlich means ordinary or normal: resume the locally conventional production; write the German word in full.
- in der Mitte In der Mitte means in the centre: move the contact or striking point to the centre of the indicated sounding surface; write the phrase in full.
- wie gewöhnlich Wie gewöhnlich means as usual: return to the locally established ordinary way of playing; write the complete German phrase in full.
How this reference works
Each term entry gives the practical meaning first: what changes in tempo, weight, attack, colour or line — then the cross-language equivalents and the instrumental context where the marking is most often met.
This reference is paired with a trainer that tests recognition, action, and sound recall in timed sessions.
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